What would have become of hockey if Benedict Arnold had succeeded?

Great battles such as Gettysburg and Waterloo were waged by hundreds of thousands of soldiers. However, it is the battles fought with small forces that often have the greatest implications. Few battles fought with just over 3000 men have had as great of impact on history and geography as the December 31, 1775 Battle of Quebec. 

The rebellion in the American colonies had just begun. In December of 1775 independence was still over half-a-year away. The colonists were still sorting out who would side with them, and who would oppose them. While General George Washington blockaded Boston, Major General Benedict Arnold led a force up Lake Champlain into Canada. His mission was to bring the Canadian colonists over to the side of the rebellion.

Arnold captured Fort St. John and Montreal. In late October Arnold reached Quebec. The long journey had taken a toll on Arnold's army and he was short of men. Arnold demanded that the Quebec garrison surrender or fight. After they did neither, he attacked. The attack failed. 

Arnold waited until Brigadier General Richard Montgomery arrived with reinforcements. Together they assaulted Quebec on December 31st during a snowstorm. The American and British forces each numbers around 1200 men. Montgomery's assault was repelled. Montgomery was killed. Arnold's troops were able to gain the city wall. Troops that had defeated Montgomery rushed to meet Arnold's troops. The American colonists that were in the city were soon captured. Arnold was wounded during the attack.

The failed campaign marked the only attempt to bring the Canadians in on the side of the Americans. Canada would remain in British hands after the war, and even into the 20th century. If the Americans had succeeded in capturing Quebec it is quite possible that all of Canada would have come under control of America. A combined Canada and United States would be the largest country in the world, rich in abundant natural resources. As for hockey, perhaps it is best that Arnold failed to make Canada the 14th American colony.

Visit to Grant's Canal

I created a post about Grant's Canal several years ago. I got to visit the last remaining part in April 2014.  The canal is just off I-20 on the Louisiana side of the Mississippi across from Vicksburg, Mississippi. The canal had plenty of water seeing that it had rained the day before. Some photos I have seen elsewhere of the canal show it dry. If you make it to Vicksburg, be sure to visit Vicksburg National Park, the National Cemetery, and the amazing USS Cairo display, in addition to the canal.

Battles of Saratoga

The battles of Saratoga marked a turning point in the American War of Independence. More of a mini-campaign than single battle, Saratoga was actually two major battles, with multiple skirmishes in between. The two main battles were fought 18 days apart on the same ground near Saratoga, New York.


British general John Burgoyne was attempting to drive down from Canada through the heart of New York in an effort to cut the colonies in two. The campaign started out well for Burgoyne. On September 19, 1777 he defeated American forces under Horatio Gates at the Battle of Freeman's Farm. This engagement is also considered the first Battle of Saratoga.

Logistical problems and attrition would lead to Burgoyne's downfall. By October 7th he only had about 5,000 combat-ready troops. The Battle of Bemis Heights, or the Second Battle of Saratoga, was fought that day. Over 8,000 American troops led by Gates and Benedict Arnold took to the field. British grenadiers opened the battle at 2 p.m. A charge by the grenadiers was broken up by short-range fire. Burgoyne lost 400 men and six of ten field pieces in the first hour. Agitated, Arnold led a successful attack on Breymann's Redoubt as darkness descended. Burgoyne retreated northward, but his dwindling army was soon surrounded. He surrendered his army on October 17th at Saratoga.


Not only did Saratoga prevent the British from cutting the colonies in two, it encouraged the French to enter the war on the side of the Americans. The War of American Independence turned decidedly in the favor of the Americans. The battlefield is preserved as Saratoga National Historic Park.

The Siege of Bastogne ranks high on any list of American military triumphs. In late 1944 Nazi Germany was in retreat, pursued from the east by Stalin's Red Army and from the west by a coalition of American, British and minor allies. Out of desperation, Hitler launched what would prove to be the final German offensive of the war, in hope of securing a favorable settlement with the Western Allies before the Russians reached Berlin.

The German name for the operation, Unternehmen Wacht am Rhein, meant "Operation Watch on the Rhine." The Germans decided to attack along a lightly defended area of the Allied line in the Ardennes Forest in Belgium. Launched on December 16th, Germans armored columns plunged westwards in hope of recapturing the port city of Antwerp. 

The 101st Airborne Division, along with various other units, was stationed in a the small village of Bastogne. One look at the map tells everything one needs to know—all roads led to Bastogne. Heinrich Freiherr von Lüttwitz, commanding the 26th Volksgrenadier, 2nd Panzer, and Panzer-Lehr divisions was tasked with capturing the town before pushing onward. The attack caught the Americans off guard and the Germans succeeding in surrounding the village on the 20th.

The Americans held on tenaciously. Finally, on the 22nd the Germans sent forward a flag of truce to offer the Americans and ultimatum. Brigadier General Anthony McAuliffe, acting officer since Major General Maxwell D. Taylor was at a conference in America, allegedly crumpled the German paper while saying "Ah, nuts!" The offhand remark became the basis for McAuliffe's reply: "To the German Commander, NUTS! The American Commander." 

Air-dropped supplies kept the Americans supplied until General George Patton's 3rd Army punched through the line. The 101st was ordered to go on the offensive, pushing the Germans back to their starting point by January 17, 1945. Patton received many of the headlines and much of the glory, but the 101st boys see it differently. They thought they were fine and that Patton was simply a late comer.

The Battle of Borodino

Napoleon might have met his ultimate fate at Waterloo, but it was the Russian Campaign that proved to Europe that the Little Corporal could be undone. Napoleon missed a glorious opportunity to destroy the Russian army at Borodino that proved to be the last offensive action of his invasion of Russia.

The French Grande Armée entered Russia in June 1812 and steadily advanced. On August 29th, General Mikhail Kutuzov took over command of Russian forces. The Russians wisely retreated towards Moscow. Kutusov realized that the time had come to offer battle, if only to bolster the morale of his troops. He chose to make his stand at Borodino. The Russians began to construct a line with earthworks, including three arrow-shaped "Bagration fléches" named after General Pyotr Bagaration.

Despite attrition from the tiring campaign, the French Army was still the finest in Europe. A tense but futile attempt to stop or delay the French at the Shevardino Redoubt left the Russian army in confusion. The battle, fought on September 7, 1812, quickly became a defensive effort on the part of the Russians.

Repeated, heavy attacks eventually drove the Russians from Bagration's fléches, but smoke, dust and exhaustion prevented the French from advancing and destroying Bagration's army. Napoleon, sick with a cold and far from the battlefield refused to release the Imperial Guard, his last reserve.

The fiercest fighting took place at the Raevsky redoubt. The position changed hands a number of times as each offensive and counteroffensive added to the mounting toll of casualties. The Russians abandoned the redoubt for good when a division of French cuirassiers, along with Polish and Saxon cavalry squadrons shared and captured the contested area. Casualty estimates vary widely, but it is likely that more 70,000 men were captured, wounded or killed in the epic struggle.

Despite the slaughter, the Russian army had survived and Napoleon's had suffered losses that could not be replaced so far from home. A French victory, some scholars believe it could easily have been a glorious Russian victory if Kutuzov had better placed his forces. Napoleon would make it to Moscow, but with a greatly weakened army. After his eventual retreat, less than 10% of Napoleon's 286,000 troops would cross the Russian border alive. 

The Battle of Smolensk

Smolensk has been the site of a number of key battles in history. In 1941 the German Wehrmacht was dealt its first serious delay during Operation Barbarossa at Smolensk. In 1943 Soviet forces methodically cleared Smolensk of the German occupation force on their way to Berlin.

In 1812 Smolensk was the site of the first major battle of Napoleon's Russian Campaign. As can be seen from the map, Smolensk was a small but heavily-fortified city of about 13,000 souls. General Barclay de Tolly was in charge of Russian forces in the region. General Pytor Bagration corps was actually in the city. 

On August 14, 1812 Napoleon ordered his marshals to cross the Dneiper River and race to the city, intending to capture it without a fight. Poor communication allowed Bagration, against orders, to slip into the city. Two days later Napoleon assaulted the city in an effort to lure out the Russians. An intense artillery barrage soon had the city in flames. A lack of siege equipment, including ladders, hampered the French effort. On the 17th Tolly ordered the city abandoned in order to save the army. Though Napoleon succeeded in capturing the city, its destruction meant it was useless as a base of operations. French losses exceeded 4,000, with the Russians suffering at least 6,000. Some estimates double the numbers for both sides.

The Battle of New Orleans

The War of 1812 should have never happened. Enraged by the British practice of impressment, trade restrictions, and support of Native Americans, U.S. President James Madison convinced Congress to declare war. Signing the declaration on June 18, 1812, Madison would not learn for weeks, due to slow communications, that new Prime Minister Lord Liverpool was seeking to avoid war.

The war was fought in three theaters: At sea, along the northern border and in Canada, and along the American Gulf Coast. The most significant land battle was for New Orleans. Ironically, like the start of the war, this battle should have never took place. The Treaty of Ghent, signed on December 24, 1814 officially ended the war. News of the war's end would not reach Louisiana until February of the following year.

In December 1814 a British fleet laden with 8,000 soldiers moved against New Orleans. Capture of the city, strategically located near the mouth of the Mississippi River would have threatened the entire Louisiana Territory and the course of Manifest Destiny that would fuel American expansion in the 19th century.

General Andrew Jackson was charged with the defense of the city. British troops disembarked onto the west coast of the Mississippi on December 23rd. A quick movement by General John Keane might have easily resulted in capture of the city. A spoiling attack by Johnson's forces (technically a British victory) unnerved Keane enough to delay until all his forces arrived at the beginning of the new year. The Americans used the time wisely, converting a canal into a strong defensive line.

The main attack got under way before light on the morning of January 8th. British soldiers, hemmed in by the Mississippi on one side and swamps on the other, bravely crossed the open field towards the American positions. Despite having superior numbers and reaching several American positions along the bank of the river, the British attack never truly stood a chance. Two large assaults were repelled. Americans suffered 71 casualties; the British a staggering 2,042.

The battle secured American rights to the Louisiana Territory and made Andrew Jackson a national hero. In 1828 Jackson would be elected president, serving as one of the most memorable presidents in American history. The battle also bolstered American morale and unity, propelling the young nation into a time of great growth and optimism known as the "Era of Good Feelings."

The battle was the subject of a song, The Battle of New Orleans, written by Jimmy Driftwood and made popular when recorded by Johnny Horton in 1959.

The map is from The Library of Congress.

The Battle of the Bulge

Hitler was desperate. The summer of 1944 witnessed the crumbling of German armies on both the Eastern and Western Fronts. With the Western Allies having gained a solid foothold in France, Germany was being squeezed into submission. german resistance began to stiffen during the fall but something had to be done. Hitler stunned his generals with an audacious plan, "Wacht Am Rhein" (Watch on the Rhine), in which Wehrmacht forces would once more assume the offensive.

Though Hitler's thoughts were rarely grounded in reality, he was correct in believing that he would receive better terms from the Western Allies than Stalin—3 1/2 long years of brutal warfare left the Russians only desiring revenge. Hitler's plan called for the massing of what new forces could be scrapped together and focusing an attack against the lightly-defended Ardennes forest in an effort to recapture the Belgian port city of Antwerp. Hitler's prayer was that the Wallies resolve might waver and seek an armistice favorable to Germany, allowing Hitler to focus only on the Russian threat.

The attack was set for mid-December, counting on poor weather that would ground the Wallies superior air support. Launched on December 16th, German forces quickly overran the sparsely-populated American front lines. Problems soon developed. Lacking precious fuel, German plans depended on capturing American fuel dumps. once the alarm was raised, American troops began destroying bridges and setting up roadblocks in which a handful of soldiers held up the German columns on the narrow forest roads. The village of Bastogne proved to be a major stumbling block, with roads extending out like the legs of a spider, Bastogne was a key position. The Germans encircled the city, but never forced the surrender of the defending 101st Airborne Division. Falling behind schedule, lacking fuel, clearing weather allowing Allied air support, and with reinforcements racing to the front, the attack not only failed to reach Antwerp but at its greatest extent still fell short of the Meuse River. The Germans merely created a "bulge" in the Allied lines (see map above).

Though the American forces were under General Omar Bradley, British general Bernard Montgomery was given temporary command of units that had been isolated by the German incursion. General George Patton's Third Army swung up from the south to help relieve the siege of Bastogne and by the end of December German forces were in retreat back towards their starting line. On January 1, 1945 Hitler ordered the Luftwaffe to stage a large raid known as "The Great Blow." 800 planes took to the air in the last German air offensive. Despite destroying 200 Allied aircraft, the Germans lost over 300 and the Luftwaffe never flew in significant numbers again. By mid-January the Germans were back at their starting lines but fewer in men and equipment. The end of the Thousand-year Reich was just months away.

An excellent resource on this and other WW2 topics is Famous Men of the Second World War. 

The Failed Vicksburg Canal

One of the primary goals of the Union was to deprive the Confederacy of the use of the Mississippi River. Whomever controlled the vital water source and her myriad of tributaries would control the heartland of America. Union victories at Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, Island No. 10 and elsewhere quickly brought the upper waters under Union control. Only one, very stubborn obstacle stood in the way — Vicksburg.

An early attempt to circumvent the Vicksburg defenses was to build a canal across a sharp bend, DeSoto Point, bypassing the city. Gunboats of the West Gulf Blockading Squadron under David Farragut bombarded the city while 3,000 Union troops began construction on the canal. Begun on June 27, 1862, the canal was built to a depth of 13 ft. and width of 18 ft. The oppressive summer heat took a heavy toll on the workers and over 1,000 "contraband" African-Americans were brought in to assist. It became apparent that the river would not cooperate by changing course and it was temporarily abandoned. 

Despite having little faith in the enterprise, Union General Ulysses S. Grant reinitiated work in January 1863 to keep his troops busy. Efforts were abandoned soon after one of the end dams broke, flooding the canal with water and sediment. Grant laid siege to the city in May and accepted its surrender on July 4th.

Ironically, the Mississippi River, which would not cooperate during the war, eventually did change course — in 1876, limiting Vicksburg's access to the river. A short portion of the  canal still exists and can be visited as a unit of Vicksburg National Military Park.

Battle of Assaye

The Battle of Assaye was contested between the British East India Company and the Maratha during the Second Anglo-Maratha War. Forces led by Arthur Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington and victor over Napoleon at Waterloo,  defeated the combined armies of the Rajah of Berar and Daulat Scindia.

The Battle took place on September 23, 1803 near the village of Assaye in western India. Wellesley's plan to surprise the Maratha camp was foiled by a Maratha army under the leadership of German Colonel Anthony Pohlmann. Though outnumbered Wellesley pressed the attack. Both sides suffered heavy casualties — the British 1600 of their 9500 men; the Maratha's 6000. Repeated bayonet and cavalry charges eventually forced the Maratha army to quit the field. Along with victories at Ahmednagar, Gawilghur and Aragon, Wellesley's campaign greatly advanced Great Britain's effort to become India's dominant power well into the 20th Century.

Battle of Fort Wayne

Can't find a map, but it is worth noting that today marks the 150th anniversary of the Battle of Fort Wayne, fought in northeastern Oklahoma Territory on October 22, 1862. Maj. General James Blunt led a surprise attack on a Confederate camp that drove the Rebels to the Arkansas River and resulted in the capture of the baggage train and fifty prisoners.

Japanese Official Surrender

Okay, it is not a map. However, as a follow-up to a post about the Japanese surrender several weeks ago, I believe this photo is appropriate for today (actually two days ago, can't believe I missed it). September 2, 1945 marked the end of the Second World War. At the cost of an estimated 50 million lives the world could once again live in relative peace. While many people believe all WW2 photographs are black & white, a surprising number of color photos exist. Here the somber Japanese delegation boards the USS Missouri for the signing of documents officially ending the war. Contrary to Japanese belief, the Allied powers did not eliminate the Emperor but instead helped Japan rebuild into one of the great industrial nations of the latter half of the twentieth century.

V-J Day

Today marks V-J Day,  the 57th anniversary go Japan's agreement to surrender unconditionally. The surrender came as a relief to Allied commanders who faced the daunting task of invading the Japanese home islands. Operation Olympic was the planned October 1945 (X-Day would have been November 1st) invasion of the Japanese island of Kyushu. Bases established by the capture of Kyushu would have supported the spring 1946 invasion of the Kanto Plain near Tokyo on the island of Honshu.

American soldiers did not doubt the will of the Japanese to fight tenaciously even when defeat was obvious. Having witnessed mass suicides by Japanese civilians during the battle of Okinawa, Allied planners expected to encounter resistance from not only the Japanese soldiers but civilians. Estimated American casualty rates varied wildly. General Douglas MacArthur's staff estimated 105,000 casualties in the first 120 days. A report put together for Secretary of State Henry Stimson suggested that casualties could reach four million!

V-J Day eliminated the need for an invasion of the Japanese home islands. The surrender was formalized on September 2, 1945 onboard the battleship Missouri. MacArthur was named Supreme Allied Commander (SCAP). In this position, arguably the most powerful position ever held by an American, MacArthur rewrote the Japanese constitution and initiated post-war reconstruction.

149th Anniversary of the Siege of Vicksburg

Today marks the 236th anniversary of the founding of the United States. It also marks the anniversary of one of the greatest events of the American Civil War, the surrender of Vicksburg, Mississippi. Major General Ulysses S. Grant's campaign to isolate and subdue Vicksburg, and thus assure Union control of the Mississippi, has been documented on this blog.

The Battle of Big Black River Bridge was the last event before the commencement of the siege of Vicksburg. Lt. General John C. Pemberton pulled his 18,500 weary troops into the 6.5 miles of defensive works surrounding Vicksburg on May 17, 1863. Grant's 35,000 troops converged and prepared for the final assault. The May 19th union assault was repulsed with almost 1,000 Union casualties. Confederate losses were less than 100. A more cautious assault on the 22nd was also repulsed. Unfortunately, Maj. General John A. McClernand dispatched false reports of success in breeching the Confederate defenses, leading Grant to pour more troops into the cauldron. Union casualties numbered over 3,000 while Confederate losses amounted to approximately 500.

Realizing the futility of direct attacks, Grant decided to starve the city into submission. He was assisted in this task by Union gunboats that lobbed a steady stream (over 22,000 in all) of shells into the city, forcing Rebel soldiers and citizens to burrow caves in the yellow clay hills. over the next six weeks, both sides, sweltering under the hot summer sun, worked to extend and fortify their lines. Snipers kept a watch out for anyone brave enough to expose themselves. One major attempt to breach the lines occurred on June 25th when Union soldiers, having mined under the 3rd Louisiana Redan, blew the fortification into the sky, leaving a 40-foot crater in its place. Federal troops, rushing into the crater, were easily disposed of by Rebel troops who rolled artillery shells with fuses into the crater.

The fate of the Rebels became apparent as June gave way to July. Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston was not coming to rescue the beleaguered. Grant continued to receive fresh troops and supplies while Pemberton's men weakened from malnutrition. On July 3rd Pemberton started negotiations with Grant believing that he would receive better terms from the Federals on Independence Day than any other day of the year. The surrender was formalized on July 4th and Union forces entered the city. The Union troops, long at odds with their Souther counterparts, were gracious, sharing their rations with the defeated soldiers.

Coupled with the defeat and retreat of General Robert E. Lee's forces at Gettysburg on July 3rd, Abraham Lincoln rejoiced at the news of the fall of Vicksburg, stating, "The Father of Waters again goes unvexed to the sea."

A portion of the original battlefield lies in the Vicksburg National Military Park on the northeastern corner of this map. The park is worth a visit in that the undulating terrain underscores the immense challenges faced by Union forces who desired to bring the siege to a quick conclusion.

Battle of Big Black River Bridge

The day after the near-run Battle of Champion's Hill, Confederate General John C. Pemberton was fighting to save his army for a last stand at Vicksburg. The last natural barrier between Union forces under Ulysses S. Grant and Vicksburg was the Big Black River. Pemberton ordered Brig. General John S. Bowen to defend the crossing with just three brigades while soldiers crossed over a bridge and a steamboat positioned as a bridge. The Confederates hastily constructed a breastworks made out of cotton bales lined up against a bayou.

John A. McClernand's XIII Corps closed in on the defenders. Brig. General Michael K. Lawler led his brigade in an assault that carried them through waist-deep water to the breastworks. The rebels broke and attempted to cross the river any way possible. Over 1700 Confederates were captured, killed in combat or drowned attempting to cross the river. The rebels who succeeded in crossing burned the bridge and steamboat, but merely delayed what was to come — Grant would place Vicksburg under siege.

Battle of Champion's Hill (or Bakers Creek)

The summer 0f 1863 proved decisive in the Western theater of the American Civil War. After a daring landing south of Vicksburg, General Ulysses S. Grant cut a swath through enemy territory and securing his rear with the capture of Jackson, Mississippi, turned back west with the intent of destroying Confederate forces under John C. Pemberton and capturing Vicksburg.

Pemberton had headed west after the Battle of Jackson. His commanding officer, Joseph E. Johnston ordered Pemberton to attack Grant at Clinton. On May 16, 1863 Pemberton arrayed his forces on a three mile line overlooking Jackson Creek. Grant ordered James B. McPherson and John A. McClernand to take the ridge. After fierce fighting the Federals gained the ridge only to be pushed back by a counterattack led by Confederate General John S. Bowen. Pemberton ordered William W. Loring to reinforce Bowen. Loring refused, stating that he had Union troops in his front. Bowen did not have the manpower to hold the ridge and the Confederate retreat began in earnest. Brig. General Lloyd Tilghman's brigade valiantly formed a rearguard, allowing Pemberton's army to escape, though not before Tilghman himself was killed by artillery fire.

The retreat set the stage for another engagement the next day— the Battle of Big Black River. Pemberton would soon be cooped up in Vicksburg and its fall would just be a matter of time.

Happy Memorial Day!

Take time to remember your loved ones who have already passed and those who paid the ultimate price to protect our freedom.

Fort Donelson

After the fall of Fort Henry on February 6, 1862, General U. S. Grant quickly turned his attention to capturing Fort Donelson, the Confederate fort controlling entry and exit to the Cumberland River. Captuiring the fort would allow Union forces to use the Cumberland as a highway into the interior of the Confederacy.

A force of 17,000 Rebels under Brigadier General John B. Floyd held Fort Donelson and a outlying entrenchments. After several probing attacks on the 13th Union gunboats closed in on the 14th. Plunging fire from the well-situated fort (unlike Fort Henry) disabled the USS St. Louis, Louisville and Pittsburg. Despite the failed naval assault, Union troops surrounded the Rebels. A Confederate offensive on the 15th, led by Brigadier General Gideon Pillow succeeded in pushing back the Union right flank and opening an escape route for the trapped soldiers. Believing Union reinforcements were at hand, the Confederates lost their nerve and fell back to their original lines instead of escaping.

Though pleased with the day's results, the Confederate leaders still believed their position to be untenable. Floyd, fearing capture and trial in the North, resigned command, passing it to Pillow. Pillow also decided to take a pass, leaving Brigadier General Simon B. Buckner to surrender the fort while Pillow and Floyd turned tail and ran. Buckner contacted Grant for terms of surrender. Grant responded:

Sir: Yours of this date proposing Armistice, and appointment of Commissioners, to settle terms of Capitulation is just received. No terms except unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted.

I propose to move immediately upon your works.

I am Sir: very respectfully

Your obt. sevt.

U.S. Grant

Brig. Gen.

Though Buckner complained about Grant's "ungenerous and unchivalrous terms," he felt compelled to accept them. On February 16th upwards of 15,000 troops and 48 artillery pieces surrendered. Grant had captured the first of three Confederate armies during the Civil War. 

For his role in capturing the fort, Grant was promoted to Major General and rose from obscurity to a public figure. He also earned the nickname "Unconditional Surrender" Grant, using the initials of his name. Grant's personal account of this battle and the rest of his Civil War experiences are recorded in his memoirs. Parts of the battlefield have been preserved by the National Park Service.

U.S. Grant's first step to glory

When the American Civil War broke out, the Union's greatest general was busy minding his father's store in Galena, Illinois. By the time the war ended Ulysses S. Grant would lead the Union to victory in both the Western and Eastern theaters. Later elected President of the United States, he is still remembered today as one of America's greatest heroes.

Every legend has a beginning, and Grant is no exception. Recruited  Illinois Governor Richard Yates to recruit and train Illinois soldiers, Grant quickly proved his worth and was promoted to be in charge of the District of Cairo (Illinois). In this position he set his eyes on Fort Henry, a Confederate fort situated on the Tennessee River. Reducing the fort would allow the Union unimpeded access up the river which wound its way through Tennessee, Mississippi and Alabama.

The fort was commanded by Brig. Gen. Lloyd Tilghman and garrisoned with over 3000 men. The fort was poorly sited and partially submerged by high water. On February 4, 1862 Grant landed troops north of Fort Henry. Grant envisioned a coordinated attack on land and by water with the assistance of Flag Officer Andrew Hull Foote's Navy gunboats.

Tilghman realized that the fort was untenable and sent most of his men overland to reinforce Fort Donelson. Foote's gunboats arrived by the infantry and engaged. With just enough men to man the fort's guns Tilghman engaged the still-novel ironclads. A well-placed shot struck the boiler of the USS Essex, releasing scalding water that killed or wounded 32 men. Outnumbered, the Confederate guns were soon silenced. Though minor in scale, the battle boosted the morale of the North, allowed Union raids upriver, and along with the ensuing battle of Fort Donelson brought Grant into public view.

The Hundred Years' War — Agincourt

The Hundred Years' War is somewhat of a misnomer. The "war" was actually a series of conflicts waged over a period of 116 years (1337-1453) between the kingdoms of France and England. The Battle of Agincourt, fought on October 25, 1415 was a major battle of the protracted war.

King Henry V led a small army of less than 10,000 troops against a much larger French army estimated between 12,000 and 36,000! Henry invaded northern France after negations failed, claiming the title of King of France through Edward III, his great-grandfather. The battle of Agincourt took place after Henry had captured the port city of Harfleur.

French king Charles IV was not in command of the French Army as he was ill and not in a proper state of mind. In his place was the Constable of France, Charles d'Albret. In reality powerful French nobles did whatever they desired, leading to a compromised battle plan.
The battle was fought on a narrow strip of land between two woods. The majority of Henry's troops were armed with the latest in battlefield technology — the long bow. Lining up in front of the British men-at-arms, the longbowmen exacted a heavy toll on a disorganized French cavalry charges. 

The Constable led the main French assault of dismounted men-at-arms. Wearing heavy armor, the troops slowly crossed the muddy field (which had been churned up by the cavalry charge) under a hail of arrows. Those who reached the English line managed to push back the archers. However, the unencumbered archers were able to more easily navigate the muddy terrain. Using hatchets and swords, the then-exhausted French were easily repulsed with great loss of life.

By the most conservative estimate the French lost six times as many men as the English, including their leader, Charles d'Albret. Henry was soon compelled to return to England but the victory bought him time to prepare for a new campaign. Henry was eventually recognized as the heir to the French throne, bonding the claim with his marriage to Catherine of Valois, daughter of Charles VI.