V-J Day

Today marks V-J Day,  the 57th anniversary go Japan's agreement to surrender unconditionally. The surrender came as a relief to Allied commanders who faced the daunting task of invading the Japanese home islands. Operation Olympic was the planned October 1945 (X-Day would have been November 1st) invasion of the Japanese island of Kyushu. Bases established by the capture of Kyushu would have supported the spring 1946 invasion of the Kanto Plain near Tokyo on the island of Honshu.

American soldiers did not doubt the will of the Japanese to fight tenaciously even when defeat was obvious. Having witnessed mass suicides by Japanese civilians during the battle of Okinawa, Allied planners expected to encounter resistance from not only the Japanese soldiers but civilians. Estimated American casualty rates varied wildly. General Douglas MacArthur's staff estimated 105,000 casualties in the first 120 days. A report put together for Secretary of State Henry Stimson suggested that casualties could reach four million!

V-J Day eliminated the need for an invasion of the Japanese home islands. The surrender was formalized on September 2, 1945 onboard the battleship Missouri. MacArthur was named Supreme Allied Commander (SCAP). In this position, arguably the most powerful position ever held by an American, MacArthur rewrote the Japanese constitution and initiated post-war reconstruction.

149th Anniversary of the Siege of Vicksburg

Today marks the 236th anniversary of the founding of the United States. It also marks the anniversary of one of the greatest events of the American Civil War, the surrender of Vicksburg, Mississippi. Major General Ulysses S. Grant's campaign to isolate and subdue Vicksburg, and thus assure Union control of the Mississippi, has been documented on this blog.

The Battle of Big Black River Bridge was the last event before the commencement of the siege of Vicksburg. Lt. General John C. Pemberton pulled his 18,500 weary troops into the 6.5 miles of defensive works surrounding Vicksburg on May 17, 1863. Grant's 35,000 troops converged and prepared for the final assault. The May 19th union assault was repulsed with almost 1,000 Union casualties. Confederate losses were less than 100. A more cautious assault on the 22nd was also repulsed. Unfortunately, Maj. General John A. McClernand dispatched false reports of success in breeching the Confederate defenses, leading Grant to pour more troops into the cauldron. Union casualties numbered over 3,000 while Confederate losses amounted to approximately 500.

Realizing the futility of direct attacks, Grant decided to starve the city into submission. He was assisted in this task by Union gunboats that lobbed a steady stream (over 22,000 in all) of shells into the city, forcing Rebel soldiers and citizens to burrow caves in the yellow clay hills. over the next six weeks, both sides, sweltering under the hot summer sun, worked to extend and fortify their lines. Snipers kept a watch out for anyone brave enough to expose themselves. One major attempt to breach the lines occurred on June 25th when Union soldiers, having mined under the 3rd Louisiana Redan, blew the fortification into the sky, leaving a 40-foot crater in its place. Federal troops, rushing into the crater, were easily disposed of by Rebel troops who rolled artillery shells with fuses into the crater.

The fate of the Rebels became apparent as June gave way to July. Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston was not coming to rescue the beleaguered. Grant continued to receive fresh troops and supplies while Pemberton's men weakened from malnutrition. On July 3rd Pemberton started negotiations with Grant believing that he would receive better terms from the Federals on Independence Day than any other day of the year. The surrender was formalized on July 4th and Union forces entered the city. The Union troops, long at odds with their Souther counterparts, were gracious, sharing their rations with the defeated soldiers.

Coupled with the defeat and retreat of General Robert E. Lee's forces at Gettysburg on July 3rd, Abraham Lincoln rejoiced at the news of the fall of Vicksburg, stating, "The Father of Waters again goes unvexed to the sea."

A portion of the original battlefield lies in the Vicksburg National Military Park on the northeastern corner of this map. The park is worth a visit in that the undulating terrain underscores the immense challenges faced by Union forces who desired to bring the siege to a quick conclusion.

Battle of Big Black River Bridge

The day after the near-run Battle of Champion's Hill, Confederate General John C. Pemberton was fighting to save his army for a last stand at Vicksburg. The last natural barrier between Union forces under Ulysses S. Grant and Vicksburg was the Big Black River. Pemberton ordered Brig. General John S. Bowen to defend the crossing with just three brigades while soldiers crossed over a bridge and a steamboat positioned as a bridge. The Confederates hastily constructed a breastworks made out of cotton bales lined up against a bayou.

John A. McClernand's XIII Corps closed in on the defenders. Brig. General Michael K. Lawler led his brigade in an assault that carried them through waist-deep water to the breastworks. The rebels broke and attempted to cross the river any way possible. Over 1700 Confederates were captured, killed in combat or drowned attempting to cross the river. The rebels who succeeded in crossing burned the bridge and steamboat, but merely delayed what was to come — Grant would place Vicksburg under siege.

Battle of Champion's Hill (or Bakers Creek)

The summer 0f 1863 proved decisive in the Western theater of the American Civil War. After a daring landing south of Vicksburg, General Ulysses S. Grant cut a swath through enemy territory and securing his rear with the capture of Jackson, Mississippi, turned back west with the intent of destroying Confederate forces under John C. Pemberton and capturing Vicksburg.

Pemberton had headed west after the Battle of Jackson. His commanding officer, Joseph E. Johnston ordered Pemberton to attack Grant at Clinton. On May 16, 1863 Pemberton arrayed his forces on a three mile line overlooking Jackson Creek. Grant ordered James B. McPherson and John A. McClernand to take the ridge. After fierce fighting the Federals gained the ridge only to be pushed back by a counterattack led by Confederate General John S. Bowen. Pemberton ordered William W. Loring to reinforce Bowen. Loring refused, stating that he had Union troops in his front. Bowen did not have the manpower to hold the ridge and the Confederate retreat began in earnest. Brig. General Lloyd Tilghman's brigade valiantly formed a rearguard, allowing Pemberton's army to escape, though not before Tilghman himself was killed by artillery fire.

The retreat set the stage for another engagement the next day— the Battle of Big Black River. Pemberton would soon be cooped up in Vicksburg and its fall would just be a matter of time.

Happy Memorial Day!

Take time to remember your loved ones who have already passed and those who paid the ultimate price to protect our freedom.

Fort Donelson

After the fall of Fort Henry on February 6, 1862, General U. S. Grant quickly turned his attention to capturing Fort Donelson, the Confederate fort controlling entry and exit to the Cumberland River. Captuiring the fort would allow Union forces to use the Cumberland as a highway into the interior of the Confederacy.

A force of 17,000 Rebels under Brigadier General John B. Floyd held Fort Donelson and a outlying entrenchments. After several probing attacks on the 13th Union gunboats closed in on the 14th. Plunging fire from the well-situated fort (unlike Fort Henry) disabled the USS St. Louis, Louisville and Pittsburg. Despite the failed naval assault, Union troops surrounded the Rebels. A Confederate offensive on the 15th, led by Brigadier General Gideon Pillow succeeded in pushing back the Union right flank and opening an escape route for the trapped soldiers. Believing Union reinforcements were at hand, the Confederates lost their nerve and fell back to their original lines instead of escaping.

Though pleased with the day's results, the Confederate leaders still believed their position to be untenable. Floyd, fearing capture and trial in the North, resigned command, passing it to Pillow. Pillow also decided to take a pass, leaving Brigadier General Simon B. Buckner to surrender the fort while Pillow and Floyd turned tail and ran. Buckner contacted Grant for terms of surrender. Grant responded:

Sir: Yours of this date proposing Armistice, and appointment of Commissioners, to settle terms of Capitulation is just received. No terms except unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted.

I propose to move immediately upon your works.

I am Sir: very respectfully

Your obt. sevt.

U.S. Grant

Brig. Gen.

Though Buckner complained about Grant's "ungenerous and unchivalrous terms," he felt compelled to accept them. On February 16th upwards of 15,000 troops and 48 artillery pieces surrendered. Grant had captured the first of three Confederate armies during the Civil War. 

For his role in capturing the fort, Grant was promoted to Major General and rose from obscurity to a public figure. He also earned the nickname "Unconditional Surrender" Grant, using the initials of his name. Grant's personal account of this battle and the rest of his Civil War experiences are recorded in his memoirs. Parts of the battlefield have been preserved by the National Park Service.

U.S. Grant's first step to glory

When the American Civil War broke out, the Union's greatest general was busy minding his father's store in Galena, Illinois. By the time the war ended Ulysses S. Grant would lead the Union to victory in both the Western and Eastern theaters. Later elected President of the United States, he is still remembered today as one of America's greatest heroes.

Every legend has a beginning, and Grant is no exception. Recruited  Illinois Governor Richard Yates to recruit and train Illinois soldiers, Grant quickly proved his worth and was promoted to be in charge of the District of Cairo (Illinois). In this position he set his eyes on Fort Henry, a Confederate fort situated on the Tennessee River. Reducing the fort would allow the Union unimpeded access up the river which wound its way through Tennessee, Mississippi and Alabama.

The fort was commanded by Brig. Gen. Lloyd Tilghman and garrisoned with over 3000 men. The fort was poorly sited and partially submerged by high water. On February 4, 1862 Grant landed troops north of Fort Henry. Grant envisioned a coordinated attack on land and by water with the assistance of Flag Officer Andrew Hull Foote's Navy gunboats.

Tilghman realized that the fort was untenable and sent most of his men overland to reinforce Fort Donelson. Foote's gunboats arrived by the infantry and engaged. With just enough men to man the fort's guns Tilghman engaged the still-novel ironclads. A well-placed shot struck the boiler of the USS Essex, releasing scalding water that killed or wounded 32 men. Outnumbered, the Confederate guns were soon silenced. Though minor in scale, the battle boosted the morale of the North, allowed Union raids upriver, and along with the ensuing battle of Fort Donelson brought Grant into public view.